Albert, A. O., Andrasik, F, Moore, J.L & Dunn, B.R. (1998). “Theta/beta training for attention, concentration and memory improvement in the geriatric population.” Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 23(2): 109.

*Angelakis, E., S. Stathopoulou, et al. (2007). “EEG neurofeedback: a brief overview and an example of peak alpha frequency training for cognitive enhancement in the elderly.” Clin Neuropsychol 21(1): 110-129.
Neurofeedback (NF) is an electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback technique for training individuals to alter their brain activity via operant conditioning. Research has shown that NF helps reduce symptoms of several neurological and psychiatric disorders, with ongoing research currently investigating applications to other disorders and to the enhancement of non-disordered cognition. The present article briefly reviews the fundamentals and current status of NF therapy and research and illustrates the basic approach with an interim report on a pilot study aimed at developing a new NF protocol for improving cognitive function in the elderly. EEG peak alpha frequency (PAF) has been shown to correlate positively with cognitive performance and to correlate negatively with age after childhood. The present pilot study used a double-blind controlled design to investigate whether training older individuals to increase PAF would result in improved cognitive performance. The results suggested that PAF NF improved cognitive processing speed and executive function, but that it had no clear effect on memory. In sum, the results suggest that the PAF NF protocol is a promising technique for improving selected cognitive functions.

Budzynski, T. H. (1996). “Brain brightening: Can neurofeedback improve cognitive process?” Biofeedback 24(2): 14-17.

*Egner, T. and J. H. Gruzelier (2003). “Ecological validity of neurofeedback: modulation of slow wave EEG enhances musical performance.” NeuroReport 14(9): 1221-1224.
Biofeedback-assisted modulation of electrocortical activity has been established to have intrinsic clinical benefits and has been shown to improve cognitive performance in healthy humans. In order to further investigate the pedagogic relevance of electroencephalograph (EEG) biofeedback (neurofeedback) for enhancing normal function, a series of investigations assessed the training’s impact on an ecologically valid real-life behavioural performance measure: music performance under stressful conditions in conservatoire students. In a pilot study, single-blind expert ratings documented improvements in musical performance in a student group that received training on attention and relaxation related neurofeedback protocols, and improvements were highly correlated with learning to progressively raise theta (5-8 Hz) over alpha (8-11 Hz) band amplitudes. These findings were replicated in a second experiment where an alpha/theta training group displayed significant performance enhancement not found with other neurofeedback training protocols or in alternative interventions, including the widely applied Alexander technique.

*Egner, T. and J. H. Gruzelier (2004). “EEG biofeedback of low beta band components: frequency-specific effects on variables of attention and event-related brain potentials.” Clin Neurophysiol 115(1): 131-139.
OBJECTIVE: To test a common assumption underlying the clinical use of electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback training (neurofeedback), that the modulation of discreet frequency bands is associated with frequency-specific effects. Specifically, the proposal was assessed that enhancement of the low beta components sensorimotor rhythm (SMR: 12-15 Hz) and beta1 (15-18 Hz) affect different aspects of attentional processing. METHODS: Subjects (n=25) were randomly allocated to training with either an SMR or beta1 protocol, or to a non-neurofeedback control group. Subjects were assessed prior and subsequent to the training process on two tests of sustained attention. The neurofeedback participants were also assessed on target P300 event-related potential (ERP) amplitudes in a traditional auditory oddball paradigm. RESULTS: Protocol-specific effects were obtained in that SMR training was associated with increased perceptual sensitivity ‘d prime’ (d’), and reduced omission errors and reaction time variability. Beta1 training was associated with faster reaction times and increased target P300 amplitudes, whereas no changes were evident in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Neurofeedback training of SMR and beta1 band components led to significant and protocol-specific effects in healthy subjects. The data can be interpreted as indicating a general attention-enhancing effect of SMR training, and an arousal-enhancing effect of beta1 training.

*Egner, T. and J. H. Gruzelier (2004). “The Temporal Dynamics of Electroencephalographic Responses to Alpha/Theta Neurofeedback Training in Healthy Subjects.” Journal of Neurotherapy: Investigations in Neuromodulation, Neurofeedback and Applied Neuroscience 8(1): 43 – 57.
Background. It has been shown recently that accurate feedback of alpha and theta electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, as employed in the commonly used “alpha/theta protocol,” induced linear increments in within-session theta-over-alpha ratios in comparison to non-contingent feedback in a healthy sample. These data verify that alpha/theta feedback can facilitate within-session operant control over the EEG signature targeted by the training protocol. However, it is neither known whether any between-session theta/alpha ratio changes do reliably occur, nor what kind of temporal dynamics between the alpha and theta band amplitudes characterise within-session and/or between-session theta/alpha ratio changes. Method. In order to address these issues, analyses of an extensive data set (n = 48) of alpha/theta training in healthy volunteers were carried out. Specifically, alpha, theta, and theta/alpha ratio EEG dynamics were contrasted between groups of subjects that engaged in 10 sessions of training at PZ (n = 28), five sessions of training at PZ (n = 10), and 10 sessions at FZ (n = 10). Results. For alpha/theta training at PZ, significant within-session increments in theta/alpha ratios were mediated by slightly less pronounced decrements in theta than in alpha activity during the sessions. The traditional alpha/theta protocol at PZ was nevertheless associated with significant theta activity increments across the training process. For training at FZ, no significant within- or between-session changes in theta, alpha, or theta/alpha ratio values were found, but a progressively higher rate of within-session theta/alpha ratio modulation was evident across sessions. Furthermore, in contrast to the PZ groups, any changes in theta/alpha ratio at FZ were mediated by increases in theta relative to alpha amplitudes. These data elucidate the dynamics underlying the within-session theta/alpha ratio increments associated with posterior alpha/theta training, and document an increase in theta activity across 10 sessions of training, offering further evidence for a neurophysiological impact of this training protocol. In addition, the contrasting EEG characteristics associated with frontal versus posterior alpha/theta training underline the heterogeneous nature of these frequency components across varying scalp sites.

*Gruzelier, J. (2009). “A theory of alpha/theta neurofeedback, creative performance enhancement, long distance functional connectivity and psychological integration.” Cogn Process 10 Suppl 1: S101-109.
Professionally significant enhancement of music and dance performance and mood has followed training with an EEG-neurofeedback protocol which increases the ratio of theta to alpha waves using auditory feedback with eyes closed. While originally the protocol was designed to induce hypnogogia, a state historically associated with creativity, the outcome was psychological integration, while subsequent applications focusing on raising the theta-alpha ratio, reduced depression and anxiety in alcoholism and resolved post traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD). In optimal performance studies we confirmed associations with creativity in musical performance, but effects also included technique and communication. We extended efficacy to dance and social anxiety. Diversity of outcome has a counterpart in wide ranging associations between theta oscillations and behaviour in cognitive and affective neuroscience: in animals with sensory-motor activity in exploration, effort, working memory, learning, retention and REM sleep; in man with meditative concentration, reduced anxiety and sympathetic autonomic activation, as well as task demands in virtual spatial navigation, focussed and sustained attention, working and recognition memory, and having implications for synaptic plasticity and long term potentiation. Neuroanatomical circuitry involves the ascending mescencephalic-cortical arousal system, and limbic circuits subserving cognitive as well as affective/motivational functions. Working memory and meditative bliss, representing cognitive and affective domains, respectively, involve coupling between frontal and posterior cortices, exemplify a role for theta and alpha waves in mediating the interaction between distal and widely distributed connections. It is posited that this mediation in part underpins the integrational attributes of alpha-theta training in optimal performance and psychotherapy, creative associations in hypnogogia, and enhancement of technical, communication and artistic domains of performance in the arts.

*Gruzelier, J., T. Egner, et al. (2006). “Validating the efficacy of neurofeedback for optimising performance.” Prog Brain Res 159: 421-431.
The field of neurofeedback training has largely proceeded without validation. Here we review our studies directed at validating SMR, beta and alpha-theta protocols for improving attention, memory, mood and music and dance performance in healthy participants. Important benefits were demonstrable with cognitive and neurophysiological measures which were predicted on the basis of regression models of learning. These are initial steps in providing a much needed scientific basis to neurofeedback, but much remains to be done.

*Hanslmayr, S., P. Sauseng, et al. (2005). “Increasing individual upper alpha power by neurofeedback improves cognitive performance in human subjects.” Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 30(1): 1-10.
The hypothesis was tested of whether neurofeedback training (NFT)–applied in order to increase upper alpha but decrease theta power–is capable of increasing cognitive performance. A mental rotation task was performed before and after upper alpha and theta NFT. Only those subjects who were able to increase their upper alpha power (responders) performed better on mental rotations after NFT. Training success (extent of NFT-induced increase in upper alpha power) was positively correlated with the improvement in cognitive performance. Furthermore, the EEG of NFT responders showed a significant increase in reference upper alpha power (i.e. in a time interval preceding mental rotation). This is in line with studies showing that increased upper alpha power in a prestimulus (reference) interval is related to good cognitive performance.

*Hoedlmoser, K., T. Pecherstorfer, et al. (2008). “Instrumental conditioning of human sensorimotor rhythm (12-15 Hz) and its impact on sleep as well as declarative learning.” Sleep 31(10): 1401-1408.
STUDY OBJECTIVES: To test whether instrumental conditioning of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR; 12-15 Hz) has an impact on sleep parameters as well as declarative memory performance in humans. DESIGN: Randomized, parallel group design SETTING: 10 instrumental conditioning sessions, pre- and posttreatment investigation including sleep evaluations PARTICIPANTS: 27 healthy subjects (13 male) Interventions: SMR-conditioning (experimental group) or randomized-frequency conditioning (control group); declarative memory task before and after a 90-min nap MEASUREMENT AND RESULTS: The experimental group was trained to enhance the amplitude of their SMR-frequency range, whereas the control group participated in a randomized-frequency conditioning program (i.e., every session a different 3-Hz frequency bin between 7 and 20 Hz). During pre- and posttreatment the subjects had to attend the sleep laboratory to take a 90-min nap (2:00-3:30 pm) and to perform a declarative memory task before and after sleep. The experimental design was successful in conditioning an increase in relative 12-15 Hz amplitude within 10 sessions (d = 0.7). Increased SMR activity was also expressed during subsequent sleep by eliciting positive changes in different sleep parameters (sleep spindle number [d = 0.6], sleep onset latency [d = 0.7]); additionally, this increased 12-15 Hz amplitude was associated with enhancement in retrieval score computed at immediate cued recall (d = 0.9). CONCLUSION: Relative SMR amplitude increased over 10 instrumental conditioning sessions (in the experimental group only) and this “shaping of one’s own brain activity” improved subsequent declarative learning and facilitated the expression of 12-15 Hz spindle oscillations during sleep. Most interestingly, these electrophysiological changes were accompanied by a shortened sleep onset latency.

*Raymond, J., I. Sajid, et al. (2005). “Biofeedback and dance performance: a preliminary investigation.” Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 30(1): 64-73.
Alpha-theta neurofeedback has been shown to produce professionally significant performance improvements in music students. The present study aimed to extend this work to a different performing art and compare alpha-theta neurofeedback with another form of biofeedback: heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback. Twenty-four ballroom and Latin dancers were randomly allocated to three groups, one receiving neurofeedback, one HRV biofeedback and one no intervention. Dance was assessed before and after training. Performance improvements were found in the biofeedback groups but not in the control group. Neurofeedback and HRV biofeedback benefited performance in different ways. A replication with larger sample sizes is required.

*Thompson, T., T. Steffert, et al. (2008). “EEG applications for sport and performance.” Methods 45(4): 279-288.
One approach to understanding processes that underlie skilled performing has been to study electrical brain activity using electroencephalography (EEG). A notorious problem with EEG is that genuine cerebral data is often contaminated by artifacts of non-cerebral origin. Unfortunately, such artifacts tend to be exacerbated when the subject is in motion, meaning that obtaining reliable data during exercise is inherently problematic. These problems may explain the limited number of studies using EEG as a methodological tool in the sports sciences. This paper discusses how empirical studies have generally tackled the problem of movement artifact by adopting alternative paradigms which avoid recording during actual physical exertion. Moreover, the specific challenges that motion presents to obtaining reliable EEG data are discussed along with practical and computational techniques to confront these challenges. Finally, as EEG recording in sports is often underpinned by a desire to optimise performance, a brief review of EEG-biofeedback and peak performance studies is also presented. A knowledge of practical aspects of EEG recording along with the advent of new technology and increasingly sophisticated processing models offer a promising approach to minimising, if perhaps not entirely circumventing, the problem of obtaining reliable EEG data during motion.

*Vernon, D. J. (2005). “Can neurofeedback training enhance performance? An evaluation of the evidence with implications for future research.” Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 30(4): 347-364.
There have been many claims regarding the possibilities of performance enhancement training. The aim of such training is for an individual to complete a specific function or task with fewer errors and greater efficiency, resulting in a more positive outcome. The present review examined evidence from neurofeedback training studies to enhance performance in a particular area. Previous research has documented associations between specific cortical states and optimum levels of performance in a range of tasks. This information provides a plausible rationale for the use of neurofeedback to train individuals to enhance their performance. An examination of the literature revealed that neurofeedback training has been utilised to enhance performance from three main areas; sport, cognitive and artistic performance. The review examined evidence from neurofeedback training studies within each of these three areas. Some suggestive findings have been reported with regard to the use of neurofeedback training to enhance performance. However, due to a range of methodological limitations and a general failure to elicit unambiguous changes in baseline EEG activity, a clear association between neurofeedback training and enhanced performance has yet to be established. Throughout, the review highlights a number of recommendations to aid and stimulate future research.